New York Times virðiast vera hræddir við að nemendur sem eru að fara að mæta aftur til skóla gætu haft höfuðið fullt af hugmyndum sem gætu verið áskorun fyrir Darwiniska þróun. Þannig að í dag þá endurbirtu þeir sex ára gamla grein sem er yfirfull af villum sem var svar "The National Center for Science Education ( NCSE ) sem var svar við spurningum Jonathan Wells sem hann sagði að nemendur ættu að spyrja sína líffræði kennara að. Hérna er greinin sem New York Times birti, sjá:10 Questions, and Answers, About Evolution eða hérna Responses to Jonathan Wells's Ten Questions to Ask Your Biology Teacher
Hérna eru spurningarnar tíu:
- ORIGIN OF LIFE. Why do textbooks claim that the 1953 Miller-Urey experiment shows how life's building blocks may have formed on the early Earth -- when conditions on the early Earth were probably nothing like those used in the experiment, and the origin of life remains a mystery?
- DARWIN'S TREE OF LIFE. Why don't textbooks discuss the "Cambrian explosion," in which all major animal groups appear together in the fossil record fully formed instead of branching from a common ancestor -- thus contradicting the evolutionary tree of life?
- HOMOLOGY. Why do textbooks define homology as similarity due to common ancestry, then claim that it is evidence for common ancestry -- a circular argument masquerading as scientific evidence?
- VERTEBRATE EMBRYOS. Why do textbooks use drawings of similarities in vertebrate embryos as evidence for their common ancestry -- even though biologists have known for over a century that vertebrate embryos are not most similar in their early stages, and the drawings are faked?
- ARCHAEOPTERYX. Why do textbooks portray this fossil as the missing link between dinosaurs and modern birds -- even though modern birds are probably not descended from it, and its supposed ancestors do not appear until millions of years after it?
- PEPPERED MOTHS. Why do textbooks use pictures of peppered moths camouflaged on tree trunks as evidence for natural selection -- when biologists have known since the 1980s that the moths don't normally rest on tree trunks, and all the pictures have been staged?
- DARWIN'S FINCHES. Why do textbooks claim that beak changes in Galapagos finches during a severe drought can explain the origin of species by natural selection -- even though the changes were reversed after the drought ended, and no net evolution occurred?
- MUTANT FRUIT FLIES. Why do textbooks use fruit flies with an extra pair of wings as evidence that DNA mutations can supply raw materials for evolution -- even though the extra wings have no muscles and these disabled mutants cannot survive outside the laboratory?
- HUMAN ORIGINS. Why are artists' drawings of ape-like humans used to justify materialistic claims that we are just animals and our existence is a mere accident -- when fossil experts cannot even agree on who our supposed ancestors were or what they looked like?
- EVOLUTION A FACT? Why are we told that Darwin's theory of evolution is a scientific fact -- even though many of its claims are based on misrepresentations of the facts?
Að sjálfsögðu þá svarar grein NCSE ekki í alvörunni spurningunum og fyrir mörgum árum voru þeirra svör hrakin af Jonathan Wells og hérna fyrir neðan er að finna það:
Inherit The Spin: The National Center For Science Education Answers Ten Questions To Ask Your Biology Teacher About Evolution with Evasions and Falsehoods
by Jonathan Wells, January 15, 2002.
A year ago, I posted Ten Questions To Ask Your Biology Teacher About Evolution at http://www.iconsofevolution.com/tools/questions.php3.
On November 28, 2001, The National Center for Science Education (NCSE) posted its answers to my questions at http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/7719_responses_to_jonathan_wells3_11_28_2001.asp.
According to the NCSE, many of the claims in my questions are incorrect or misleading, and they are intended only to create unwarranted doubts in students minds about the validity of evolution as good science. It is actually the NCSEs answers, however, that are incorrect or misleading. My original questions (in italics) are posted below; each question is followed by the NCSEs answer (in bold), a brief outline of my response, and then my detailed response. Numbers in parentheses refer to research notes at the end.
Please feel free to copy and distribute this document to teachers, students, parents, and other interested parties.
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My Question: ORIGIN OF LIFE. Why do textbooks claim that the 1953 Miller-Urey experiment shows how lifes building blocks may have formed on the early Earth--when conditions on the early Earth were probably nothing like those used in the experiment, and the origin of life remains a mystery?
NCSEs Answer: Because evolutionary theory works with any model of the origin of life on Earth, how life originated is not a question about evolution. Textbooks discuss the 1953 studies because they were the first successful attempt to show how organic molecules might have been produced on the early Earth. When modern scientists changed the experimental conditions to reflect better knowledge of the Earths early atmosphere, they were able to produce most of the same building blocks. Origin-of-life remains a vigorous area of research.
My Response in Outline:
(a) Most biology textbooks include the origin of life--and the Miller-Urey experiment--in their treatments of evolution. If the NCSE feels that the origin of life is really not a question about evolution, the organization should launch a campaign to correct biology textbooks.
(b) Because the Miller-Urey experiment used a simulated atmosphere that geochemists now agree was incorrect, it was not the first successful attempt to show how organic molecules might have been produced on the early Earth. When conditions are changed to reflect better knowledge of the Earths early atmosphere, the experiment doesnt work.
(c) If the origin of life remains a vigorous area of research, it is only because origin-of-life researchers are dedicated to their work, not because they have discovered anything that demonstrates how life originated.
My Response in Detail:
(a) The NCSEs claim that the origin of life is not a question about evolution ignores the fact that most biology textbooks include it--along with the Miller-Urey experiment--in their treatments of evolution. For example, Campbell, Reece and Mitchells Biology (5th Edition, 1999), one of the most widely used introductory textbooks for college undergraduates, discusses the Miller-Urey experiment in Unit Five: The Evolutionary History of Biological Diversity. Similarly, Maders Biology (6th Edition, 1998), Starr and Taggarts Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life (8th Edition, 1998), Schraer and Stoltzes Biology: The Study of Life (7th Edition, 1999), Guttmans Biology (1999), Audesirk, Audesirk and Byerss Life On Earth (2nd Edition, 2000), and Purves, Sadava, Orians and Hellers Life: The Science of Biology (6th Edition, 2001) all feature the Miller-Urey experiment in their sections dealing with evolution. Alberts, Bray, Lewis, Raff, Roberts and Watsons upper-division textbook for biology majors, Molecular Biology of the Cell (3rd Edition, 1994), discusses it in a chapter titled Evolution of the Cell. The Miller-Urey experiment is also standard fare in upper division and graduate-level textbooks devoted entirely to evolution, such as Futuymas Evolutionary Biology (3rd Edition, 1998) and Freeman and Herrons Evolutionary Analysis (2nd Edition, 2001). If the NCSE feels that the origin of life is really not a question about evolution, the organization should launch a campaign to correct biology textbooks.(1)
(b) The 1953 Miller-Urey experiment used a simulated hydrogen-rich atmosphere of methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water vapor. By 1970, however, geochemists were nearly unanimous in agreeing that the Earths primitive atmosphere was nothing like this. Excess hydrogen is quickly lost to space because the Earths gravity is too weak to hold it, so the early atmosphere would almost certainly have consisted of gasses emitted from volcanoes--mainly carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapor. When this more realistic mixture is put into a Miller-Urey-type apparatus, the experiment doesnt work. Stanley Miller himself reported in 1983 that the most he could produce in the absence of methane was glycine, the simplest amino acid, and then only if free hydrogen were present. But free hydrogen is precisely what geochemists now agree was essentially ABSENT. So the Miller-Urey experiment was unsuccessful, and NCSEs claim that it was the first successful attempt to show how organic molecules might have been produced on the early Earth is false. The NCSEs claim that when modern scientists changed the experimental conditions to reflect better knowledge of the Earths early atmosphere, they were able to produce most of the same building blocks is also false. (2)
(c) If the origin of life remains a vigorous area of research, it is only because origin-of-life researchers are dedicated to their work, not because they have discovered anything that demonstrates how life originated. As New York Times science reporter Nicholas Wade wrote in 2000: Everything about the origin of life on Earth is a mystery, and it seems the more that is known, the more acute the puzzles get. (3)
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My Question: DARWINS TREE OF LIFE. Why dont textbooks discuss the Cambrian explosion, in which all major animal groups appear together in the fossil record fully formed instead of branching from a common ancestor--thus contradicting the evolutionary tree of life?
NCSEs Answer: Wells is wrong: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals all are post-Cambrian--arent these major groups? We would recognize very few of the Cambrian organisms as modern; they are in fact at the roots of the tree of life, showing the earliest appearances of some key features of groups of animals--but not all features and not all groups. Researchers are linking these Cambrian groups using not only fossils but also data from developmental biology.
My Response in Outline:
(a) The NCSE is wrong: Fish DID make their first appearance in the Cambrian explosion.
(b) The major groups to which my question refers are the animal phyla. Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are sub-groups (classes) of a single phylum. The NCSE is using semantics to give the illusion that the Cambrian explosion never happened.
(c) It is through assumption and extrapolation, not fossils and data from developmental biology, that Darwinists are supposedly linking the Cambrian groups.
My Response in Detail:
(a) The fossil record shows that fish were among the animals that made their first appearance in the Cambrian explosion. (4)
(b) Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are not the major groups to which my question refers. As every biologist knows, animals are classified into a hierarchy of groups: species, genera, families, orders, classes, and phyla. The phyla are the several dozen major categories that distinguish mollusks, arthropods, echinoderms, annelids and chordates, among others. (Modern representatives of the five phyla listed include snails, insects, starfish, earthworms and mammals, respectively.) Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are sub-groups (classes) of the chordate phylum. Since fish first appeared in the early Cambrian, this phylum was present in the Cambrian explosion, even though not all of its sub-groups were. Representatives of the five phyla listed here, and most of the other phyla as well--the major groups of animals recognized by all biologists--appear in the Cambrian explosion, with no fossil evidence that they evolved from a common ancestor. Berkeley paleontologist James Valentine and his colleagues wrote in 1991 that the Cambrian explosion was even more abrupt and extensive than previously envisioned and gives the impression that animal evolution has by and large proceeded from the top down. This does not fit Darwins theory that major differences should have evolved over millions of years from minor differences in a single ancestral species--that is, from the bottom up. By labeling vertebrate classes major groups, the NCSE uses a semantic trick to give the illusion that the Cambrian explosion never happened, and that the conflict with Darwins theory doesnt exist. Similarly, most biology textbooks avoid any mention of the Cambrian explosion, and the few that do mention it try to dismiss it. The NCSE, like the textbooks, is concealing a problem with the fossil record so significant that Darwin himself considered it a valid argument against his theory. (5)
(c) The NCSEs claim that researchers are linking these Cambrian groups using not only fossils but also data from developmental biology is profoundly misleading. First, the principal lesson of the Cambrian explosion is that the fossils needed for linking the phyla to a common ancestor are nonexistent. Second, with a few rare exceptions developmental data are available only from living animals. Although embryological similarities and differences can help us to classify living animals into phyla, we can only speculate how most extinct animals developed. Darwinian researchers ASSUME the existence of a common ancestor, and then extrapolate modern similarities and differences hundreds of millions of years into the past to guess what the hypothetical ancestor might have been or how it might have developed. Thus it is through assumption and extrapolation, not fossils and data from developmental biology, that Darwinists are linking the Cambrian groups.
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My Question: HOMOLOGY. Why do textbooks define homology as similarity due to common ancestry, then claim that it is evidence for common ancestry--a circular argument masquerading as scientific evidence?
NCSEs Answer: The same anatomical structure (such as a leg or an antenna) in two species may be similar because it was inherited from a common ancestor (homology) or because of similar adaptive pressure (convergence). Homology of structures across species is not assumed, but tested by the repeated comparison of numerous features that do or do not sort into successive clusters. Homology is used to test hypotheses of degrees of relatedness. Homology is not evidence for common ancestry: common ancestry is inferred based on many sources of information, and reinforced by the patterns of similarity and dissimilarity of anatomical structures.
My Response in Outline:
(a) I thank the NCSE for conceding my main point: Homology (defined by modern Darwinists as similarity due to common ancestry) is not evidence of common ancestry.
(b) Yet many biology textbooks tell students that it is. When the NCSE launches its campaign to correct textbooks that treat the origin of life as part of evolution, it should also correct textbooks that treat homology as evidence for common ancestry.
(c) At the level of the animal phyla, common ancestry is not inferred from sources of information such as fossils, molecules or embryos; instead, it is assumed on theoretical grounds.
My Response in Detail:
(a) As the NCSE acknowledges, homology (defined by modern Darwinists as similarity due to common ancestry) is not evidence of common ancestry.
(b) Why, then, do many biology textbooks tell students that homology is evidence of common ancestry? For example, Starr and Taggarts Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life (8th Edition, 1998), states that the pattern of macroevolution that is, change from the form of a common ancestor is called morphological divergence
. Homology [is] a similarity in one or more body parts in different organisms that share a common ancestor
. Homologous structures provide very strong evidence of morphological divergence. In a section on The Evidence for Evolution in the teachers edition of Johnsons Biology: Visualizing Life (1998), students are told that homologous structures are structures that share a common ancestor, and an accompanying note tells the teacher that such structures point to a common ancestry. According to Campbell, Reece and Mitchells Biology (5th Edition, 1999), similarity in characteristics resulting from common ancestry is known as homology, and such anatomical signs of evolution are called homologous structures. Comparative anatomy is consistent with all other evidence in testifying [to] evolution. Raven and Johnsons Biology (5th Edition, 1999), in a section titled The evidence for macroevolution is extensive, includes the following: Homology: Many organisms exhibit organs that are similar in structure to those in a recent common ancestor. This is evidence of evolutionary relatedness. A few pages later, the same textbook explicitly defines homologous structures as structures with different appearances and functions that all derived from the same body part in a common ancestor. Audesirk, Audesirk and Byerss Life On Earth (2nd Edition, 2000) calls homology evidence of relatedness in a section titled Comparative Anatomy Provides Structural Evidence of Evolution. The textbook tells students: Internally similar structures are called homologous structures, meaning that they have the same evolutionary origin despite possible differences in function. Studies of comparative anatomy have long been used to determine the relationships among organisms, on the grounds that the more similar the internal structures of two species, the more closely related the species must be, that is, the more recently they must have diverged from a common ancestor. When the NCSE launches its campaign to correct textbooks that treat the origin of life as part of evolution, it should also correct textbooks that treat homology as evidence for common ancestry. (6)
(c) According to the NCSE, common ancestry is inferred based on many sources of evidence. As we have seen, however, at the level of the animal phyla the fossil record does not support such an inference. Neither does the molecular evidence. As biologist Michael Lynch wrote in 1999: Clarification of the phylogenetic [i.e., evolutionary] relationships of the major animal phyla has been an elusive problem, with analyses based on different genes and even different analyses based on the same genes yielding a diversity of phylogenetic trees. And as the next question demonstrates, the embryological evidence does not support common ancestry even at the level of the vertebrate classes, much less at the phylum level. At these levels, common ancestry is assumed on theoretical grounds, not inferred from evidence. (7)
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My Question: VERTEBRATE EMBRYOS. Why do textbooks use drawings of similarities in vertebrate embryos as evidence for their common ancestry--even though biologists have known for over a century that vertebrate embryos are not most similar in their early stages, and the drawings are faked?
NCSEs Answer: Twentieth-century and current embryological research confirms that early stages (if not the earliest) of vertebrate embryos are more similar than later ones; the more recently species shared a common ancestor, the more similar their embryological development. Thus cows and rabbits--mammals--are more similar in their embryological development than either is to alligators. Cows and antelopes are more similar in their embryology than either is to rabbits, and so on. The union of evolution and developmental biology--evo-devo--is one of the most rapidly growing biological fields. Faked drawings are not relied upon: there has been plenty of research in developmental biology since Haeckel--and in fact, hardly any textbooks feature Haeckels drawings, as claimed.
My Response in Outline:
(a) Far from confirming the NCSEs claim that the early stages of vertebrate embryos are more similar than later ones, embryological research confirms that the claim is false.
(b) The NCSEs claim that the more recently species shared a common ancestor, the more similar their embryological development is also false.
(c) Textbooks claim that the various CLASSES of vertebrates resemble each other in their early stages. By focusing on taxonomic levels below classes, the NCSE is attempting to evade the issue.
(d) Although the NCSE claims that faked drawings are not relied upon, a simple examination of biology textbooks shows that the NCSE is wrong.
My Response in Detail:
(a) Contrary to the NCSEs claim, the early stages of vertebrate embryos are generally NOT more similar than later ones. Early vertebrate embryos actually look very different from each other, then they converge somewhat in appearance midway through development before diverging again--a pattern known to embryologists as the developmental hourglass. Birds and mammals, for example, have fundamentally different patterns of early cell divisions (called cleavage), yet the two classes look somewhat similar for a short time midway through development. In the 1860s, German Darwinist Ernst Haeckel produced drawings of vertebrate embryos that not only exaggerated their similarities at the midpoint of development, but also omitted the strikingly different stages that preceded the midpoint. The drawings gave the impression that vertebrate embryos are most similar in their early stages, suggesting common ancestry; but the drawings were faked, and the impression is false. In 1976, embryologist William Ballard wrote that it is only by semantic tricks and subjective selection of evidence, by bending the facts of nature, that one can argue that the cleavage and gastrulation stages of vertebrates are more alike than their adults. (Gastrulation refers to the cell movements that follow the cleavage stage.) In 1987, developmental biologist Richard Elinson noted that the early embryos of frogs, chicks and mice are radically different in such fundamental properties as egg size, fertilization mechanisms, cleavage patterns, and [gastrulation] movements. Thus twentieth-century and current embryological research confirms that the NCSE is wrong. (8)
(b) The NCSE further claims that the more recently species shared a common ancestor, the more similar their embryological development. As a general description of vertebrate embryos, however, this is also false. For example, the pattern of development in some frog species looks very much like that in birds, but no one thinks those frogs are more closely related to birds than to other frogs. (9)
(c) The standard textbook claim is that the various CLASSES of vertebrates resemble each other in their early stages. Yet in its answer, the NCSE compares representatives of only one class, mammals. No one doubts that the embryos of mammals tend to resemble each other more than they resemble the embryos of reptiles, but Haeckels drawings fraudulently portrayed the embryos of ALL vertebrate classes as though they were alike. Just as the NCSE evaded my question about the tree of life by focusing on classes instead of phyla, here the NCSE evades my question about vertebrate embryos by focusing on taxonomic levels below classes. The NCSE thereby resorts to exactly the sort of semantic tricks and subjective selection of evidence criticized by Ballard in 1976.
(d) According to the NCSE, faked drawings are not relied upon, and hardly any textbooks feature Haeckels drawings. Yet two college textbooks, Starr and Taggarts Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life (8th Edition, 1998) and Guttmans Biology (1999) feature slightly redrawn versions of Haeckels faked originals. Three high-school textbooks, Biggs, Kapicka and Lundgrens Biology: The Dynamics of Life (1998), Schraer and Stoltzes Biology: The Study of Life (7th Edition, 1999), and Miller and Levines Biology (5th Edition, 2000), contain stylized drawings that improve only slightly on Haeckel, and perpetuate Haeckels misrepresentation of the midpoint of development as the first stage. Worse yet, two advanced textbooks for college biology majors feature Haeckels original drawings: Alberts, Bray, Lewis, Raff, Roberts and Watsons Molecular Biology of the Cell (3rd Edition, 1994), and Futuymas Evolutionary Biology (3rd Edition, 1998). It was textbooks like these that prompted Harvard evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould to write in 2000: We do, I think, have the right to be both astonished and ashamed by the century of mindless recycling that has led to the persistence of these drawings in a large number, if not a majority, of modern textbooks. (10)
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My Question: ARCHAEOPTERYX. Why do textbooks portray this fossil as the missing link between dinosaurs and modern birds--even though modern birds are probably not descended from it, and its supposed ancestors do not appear until millions of years after it?
NCSEs Answer: The notion of a missing link is an out-of-date misconception about how evolution works. Archaeopteryx (and other feathered fossils) shows how a branch of reptiles gradually acquired both the unique anatomy and flying adaptations found in all modern birds. It is a transitional fossil in that it shows both reptile ancestry and bird specializations. Wellss claim that supposed ancestors are younger than Archaeopteryx is false. These fossils are not ancestors but relatives of Archaeopteryx and, as everyone knows, your uncle can be younger than you!
My Response in Outline:
(a) If the notion of a missing link is out of date, why do biology textbooks continue to use it? When the NCSE launches its long-overdue campaign against misconceptions in biology textbooks (such as calling the origin of life part of evolution, or using homology as evidence for common ancestry), it can add missing link to its list.
(b) If Darwins theory is true, there must have been organisms in the past that were transitional links between ancestors and descendants--yet most of them are missing from the fossil record. So the notion of missing link is no more out-of-date than evolutionary theory itself.
(c) Archaeopteryx is not preceded by fossils showing how reptiles gradually acquired bird-like features. Furthermore, without fossils of the appropriate age, the NCSE has no grounds for saying Wellss claim that supposed ancestors are younger than Archaeopteryx is false.
(d) Bird-like dinosaurs are not just younger than their supposed relative, but millions of generations younger, so it makes no sense to call them uncles of Archaeopteryx
My Response in Detail:
(a) Many biology textbooks call Archaeopteryx a link that once was missing but now is found. Starr and Taggarts Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life (8th Edition, 1998) calls Archaeopteryx the first of the missing links. Maders Biology (6th Edition, 1998), describes this fossil as a transitional link between reptiles and modern birds. Schraer and Stoltzes Biology: The Study of Life (7th Edition, 1999) calls it an evolutionary link between reptiles and birds. And according to Raven and Johnsons Biology (5th Edition, 1999), Archaeopteryx is an example of a fossil linking major groups. If the NCSE ever launches a campaign against misconceptions in biology textbooks (such as calling the origin of life part of evolution, or using homology as evidence for common ancestry), it can add missing link to its list. (11)
(b) In any case, the NCSEs claim that missing link is a misconception is odd, since if Darwins theory is true there MUST have been organisms in the past that were transitional links between ancestors and descendants. Transitional links are a logical consequence of evolutionary theory, yet most of them are missing from the fossil record. Archaeopteryx is famous precisely because it is one of the few supposed links that have been found. So the notion of missing link cannot possibly be any more out-of-date than evolutionary theory itself. Of course, whether any PARTICULAR fossil can be determined to be a transitional link is open to serious doubt. According to Henry Gee, chief science writer for Nature, the intervals of time that separate fossils are so huge that we cannot say anything definite about their possible connection through ancestry and descent. But if the NCSE is suggesting, like Gee, that NO fossil can be identified as transitional between its ancestors and descendants, why does it call Archaeopteryx a transitional fossil that shows reptilian ancestry as well as bird-like features? (12)
(c) Archaeopteryx is the oldest bird in the fossil record. It appears fully formed, and it is not preceded by fossils showing gradual transitions from reptiles to birds. So the NCSEs claim that it shows how a branch of reptiles gradually acquired bird-like features is false. If the NCSE is suggesting that this gradual transition is seen in bird-like dinosaurs (a view passionately--and controversially--defended by NCSEs president, Kevin Padian), the problem is that these supposed ancestors do not appear in the fossil record until tens of millions of years AFTER Archaeopteryx. Without fossils of the appropriate age, the NCSE has no grounds for saying Wellss claim that supposed ancestors are younger than Archaeopteryx is false. (13)
(d) Calling bird-like dinosaurs uncles instead of ancestors of Archaeopteryx merely obscures the problem: Although an uncle isnt the ancestor of his nephew, and the former can be younger than the latter, the two--by definition--are no more than a generation apart, and they are members of the same species. Yet according to the fossil record, Archaeopteryx is millions of generations older than the bird-like dinosaurs. Furthermore, the two are not in the same species--in fact, theyre not even in the same genus, family, order or class! It makes no sense to call David Ben-Gurion the uncle of Abraham--much less to call bird-like dinosaurs the uncles of Archaeopteryx
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My Question: PEPPERED MOTHS. Why do textbooks use pictures of peppered moths camouflaged on tree trunks as evidence for natural selection--when biologists have known since the 1980s that the moths dont normally rest on tree trunks, and all the pictures have been staged?
NCSEs Answer: These pictures are illustrations used to demonstrate a point--the advantage of protective coloration to reduce the danger of predation. The pictures are not the scientific evidence used to prove the point in the first place. Compare this illustration to the well-known re-enactments of the Battle of Gettysburg. Does the fact that these re-enactments are staged prove that the battle never happened? The peppered moth photos are the same sort of illustration, not scientific evidence for natural selection.
My Response in Outline:
(a) The NCSEs first point is technically correct: The textbook pictures are illustrations, not actual evidence.
(b) The NCSE is using this technical point, however, to obscure the real issue: The textbook pictures misrepresent the natural resting-place of peppered moths and conceal serious flaws in the standard story.
(c) Staged peppered moth photos are not comparable to re-enactments of the Battle of Gettysburg, because the former misrepresent the truth.
(d) If using staged photos and re-telling a flawed story demonstrate a point, as the NCSE claims, the point is that students cannot trust what they read in their biology textbooks.
My Response in Detail:
(a) True, the textbook pictures are illustrations, not actual evidence. It would have been more accurate for me to write examples of or illustrations of instead of evidence for.
(b) The NCSE uses this technical point, however, to obscure the fact that textbook pictures misrepresent the evidence and conceal serious flaws in the peppered moth story. Two hundred years ago, almost all peppered moths in the U.K. were light-colored. During the industrial revolution, dark-colored moths became much more common--especially in the polluted woodlands around major cities. According to theory, the shift occurred because dark-colored moths were better camouflaged against pollution-darkened tree trunks, and thus less likely to be eaten by predatory birds. In the 1950s, Bernard Kettlewell released light and dark-colored moths onto nearby tree trunks in polluted and unpolluted woodlands, and watched as birds ate the more visible ones. The story, and Kettlewells experiments, became the classic textbook example of natural selection. When pollution-control legislation resulted in cleaner air after the 1950s, light-colored moths became more common again, as the theory predicted. Contrary to the theory, however, this occurred BEFORE tree trunks reverted to their former light color. In the 1980s, biologists discovered that peppered moths dont normally rest on tree trunks, and many began to question the classic story about camouflage and bird predation. In 1998, Theodore Sargent, Craig Millar and David Lambert wrote in Evolutionary Biology: There is little persuasive evidence
to support this explanation at the present time. And as University of Chicago evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne wrote in Nature, the fact that peppered moths do not normally rest on tree trunks alone invalidates Kettlewells
experiments, as moths were released by placing them directly onto tree trunks. (14)
(c) The NCSEs comparison of staged peppered moth photos with re-enactments of the Battle of Gettysburg is inappropriate, because the former misrepresent the facts. The appropriate comparison would be with FALSE re-enactments of the Battle of Gettysburg--such as re-enactments staged in Chancellorsville (where the other side won). Scientific illustrations, like historical re-enactments, should portray the truth.
(d) Instead of telling students the truth about peppered moths, most biology textbooks repeat the classic story and illustrate it with staged pictures--many of them made by pinning or gluing dead moths to tree trunks. For example, Johnsons Biology: Visualizing Life (1998), Guttmans Biology (1999), Schraer and Stoltzes Biology: The Study of Life (7th Edition, 1999), and Miller and Levines Biology(5th Edition, 2000) all use staged photos and summaries of Kettlewells experiments to convince students that peppered moths are a classic demonstration of natural selection in action. Maders Biology (6th Edition, 1998) goes even further, using Kettlewells experiments as the paramount example of how to do science: The scientific method consists of forming a hypothesis, testing it, and coming to an conclusion
. In order to examine the scientific method in more detail, we will consider research performed by British scientist H.B.D. Kettlewell. If these illustrations demonstrate a point, as the NCSE claims, the point is that students cannot trust what they read in their biology textbooks. (15)
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My Question: DARWINS FINCHES. Why do textbooks claim that beak changes in Galápagos finches during a severe drought can explain the origin of species by natural selection--even though the changes were reversed after the drought ended, and no net evolution occurred?
NCSEs Answer: Textbooks present the finch data to illustrate natural selection: that populations change their physical features in response to changes in the environment. The finch studies carefully--exquisitely--documented how the physical features of an organism can affect its success in reproduction and survival, and that such changes can take place more quickly than was realized. That new species did not arise within the duration of the study hardly challenges evolution!
My Response in Outline:
(a) The NCSE is evading the question, which is not whether the finch data demonstrate natural selection (they do), but whether those data explain the origin of new species (they dont).
(b) To the extent that scientific theories are supposed to rely on evidence, the finch study DOES challenge Darwins theory of the origin of species by natural selection. No one doubts that natural selection occurs, but every time it has been observed (as in the finches) it has occurred only within existing species.
My Response in Detail:
(a) The question is not whether the finch data demonstrate natural selection, but whether those data explain the origin of new species. In the 1970s, biologists Peter and Rosemary Grant watched as a severe drought killed 85% of a particular finch species on one island in the Galápagos archipelago. The survivors had (on average) slightly larger beaks, enabling them to crack the hard seeds that had weathered the drought; but average beak size returned to normal after the rains returned. There was no net change, and no new species emerged. In fact, several species of Galápagos finches now appear to be merging through hybridization--the exact opposite of producing new species. Yet some textbooks--and a publication of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS)--make it sound as though the finch studies showed how new species can originate. Miller and Levines Biology: The Living Science (1998) tells students: It might take only between 12 and 20 droughts to change one species of finch into another! According to Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences (1999), the Grants observations showed that if droughts occur about once every ten years on the islands, a new species of finch might arise in only about 200 years, making the Galápagos finches a particularly compelling example of speciation [a technical term for the origin of new species]. Both the Miller-Levine textbook and the NAS booklet neglect to mention that the data actually point to oscillating selection with no net change, and now to the merging of species through hybridization. The question is not whether the Grants observed natural selection--they did--but why the evidence is exaggerated to make it appear to show much more. The NCSE fails to answer this question. (16)
(b) The fact that no new species arose in the course of the Grants study does not refute the theory of evolution. It certainly challenges it, however, because scientific theories need to be supported by evidence. Darwins theory, as expressed in the title of his 1859 book, was The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, and the Galápagos finches are held up by our nations premier science organization as a particularly compelling example of this. Yet the finch data do not show cumulative changes in beak size, much less the origin of species through natural selection. No one doubts that natural selection occurs, but every time it has been observed (as in the finches) it has occurred within existing species. For example, natural selection has often been observed in bacteria. Because of their rapid generation times, bacteria ought to be the easiest organisms in which to observe the origin of species through natural selection. Yet as British bacteriologist Alan H. Linton wrote in 2001: Throughout 150 years of the science of bacteriology, there is no evidence that one species of bacteria has changed into another. Faced with this lack of evidence for a key element of Darwins theory, some defenders of the theory--even in the prestigious NAS--have taken to exaggerating the finch data. Although this does not refute the theory, it hardly inspires confidence in it. As Berkeley law professor and Darwin critic Phillip E. Johnson wrote in 1999: When our leading scientists have to resort to the sort of distortion that would land a stock promoter in jail, you know they are in trouble. (17)
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My Question: MUTANT FRUIT FLIES. Why do textbooks use fruit flies with an extra pair of wings as evidence that DNA mutations can supply raw materials for evolution--even though the extra wings have no muscles and these disabled mutants cannot survive outside the laboratory?
NCSEs Answer: In the very few textbooks that discuss four-winged fruit flies, they are used as an illustration of how genes can reprogram parts of the body to produce novel structures, thus indeed providing raw material for evolution. This type of mutation produces new structures that become available for further experimentation and potential new uses. Even if not every mutation leads to a new evolutionary pathway, the flies are a vivid example of one way mutation can provide variation for natural selection to work on.
My Response in Outline:
(a) The four-winged fruit fly is found in a lot more than very few textbooks.
(b) The mutations that produce the four-winged fruit fly lead to the LOSS of important structures--and to their replacement by duplicates of structures already present elsewhere in the fly--not to new structures that become available for further experimentation.
(c) Mutations must be advantageous to the organism in order to provide raw materials for evolution--otherwise, natural selection will tend to eliminate them. Yet the four-winged fruit fly is seriously disabled, so it is not a vivid example of one way mutation can provide variation for natural selection to work on.
My Response in Detail:
(a) More than a few textbooks use the four-winged fruit fly. Maders Biology (6th Edition, 1998), Raven and Johnsons Biology (5th Edition, 1999), Guttmans Biology (1999) and Purves, Sadava, Orians and Hellers Life: The Science of Biology (6th Edition, 2001) all use pictures of four-winged fruit flies to illustrate how mutations can affect development--after telling students that gene mutations are the raw materials of evolution. Two advanced textbooks for biology majors, Futuymas Evolutionary Biology (3rd Edition, 1998) and Freeman and Herrons Evolutionary Analysis (2nd Edition, 2001), include pictures of four-winged fruit flies in their discussions of how mutations supposedly provide raw materials for evolution. (18)
(b) Contrary to the NCSEs claim, the extra wings in the four-winged fruit fly are not novel structures, but pathological duplications of body parts already present elsewhere in the fly. The mutations that produce the four-winged fly damage a gene that normally enables the fly to develop balancers--tiny structures behind the wings that help to stabilize the insect in flight. Unable to form balancers, the mutant fly sprouts a second pair of normal-looking (though not normal-functioning) wings by default. In other words, the mutations lead to a LOSS of important structures, not to new structures that become available for further experimentation. (19)
(c) In order for a mutation to provide raw materials for evolution, it must be advantageous to the organism--otherwise, natural selection will tend to eliminate it. Although most mutations are harmful, a mutation occasionally benefits an organism by increasing its resistance to an antibiotic or a pesticide--usually by damaging a molecule that would otherwise react with the antibiotic or pesticide. Such mutations, however, affect only single molecules, while Darwinian evolution requires changes in anatomy as well as biochemistry. But advantageous anatomical mutations are never observed. The four-winged fruit fly is a case in point: The second set of wings lacks flight muscles, so the useless appendages interfere with flying and mating, and the mutant fly cannot survive long outside the laboratory. Similar mutations in other genes also produce various anatomical deformations, but they are harmful, too. In 1963, Harvard evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr wrote that the resulting mutants are such evident freaks that these monsters can be designated only as hopeless. They are so utterly unbalanced that they would not have the slightest chance of escaping elimination through natural selection. So the NCSEs claim that four-winged fruit flies are a vivid example of one way mutation can provide variation for natural selection to work on is false. (20)
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My Question: HUMAN ORIGINS. Why are artists drawings of ape-like humans used to justify materialistic claims that we are just animals and our existence is a mere accident--when fossil experts cannot even agree on who our supposed ancestors were or what they looked like?
NCSEs Answer: Drawings of humans and our ancestors illustrate the general outline of human ancestry, about which there is considerable agreement, even if new discoveries continually add to the complexity of the account. The notion that such drawings are used to justify materialistic claims is ludicrous and not borne out by an examination of textbook treatments of human evolution.
My Response in Outline:
(a) The field of human origins is actually one of the most contentious in biology, because individual researchers interpret the relatively meager evidence on the basis of different biases and preconceptions.
(b) Darwins followers--like Darwin himself--agree that humans evolved from ape-like animals. This theoretical consensus, however, owes less to the evidence than to materialistic philosophy.
(c) One consequence of this philosophy is the claim that there has been no purpose or direction in the history of life. Many biology textbooks promote this view and use drawings of ape-like humans to convince students that we are no exception to it.
My Response in Detail:
(a) Contrary the NCSEs claim of considerable agreement, the field of human origins (paleoanthropology) is actually one of the most contentious in biology. According to experts in the field, this is because of subjective interpretations of the relatively meager evidence. Berkeley evolutionary biologist F. Clark Howell wrote in 1996: There is no encompassing theory of [human] evolution... Alas, there never really has been. According to Howell, the field is characterized by narrative treatments based on little evidence, so it is probably true that an encompassing scenario of human evolution is beyond our grasp, now if not forever. Arizona State University paleoanthropologist Geoffrey Clark was equally pessimistic in 1997: Scientists have been trying to arrive at a consensus about modern human origins for more than a century. Why havent they been successful? Clark is convinced it is because paleoanthropologists proceed from different biases, preconceptions and assumptions. And in 1999 Henry Gee, chief science writer for Nature, pointed out that all the evidence for human evolution between about 10 and 5 million years ago--several thousand generations of living creatures--can be fitted into a small box. According to Gee, the conventional picture of human evolution as lines of ancestry and descent is a completely human invention created after the fact, shaped to accord with human prejudices. (21)
(b) Of course, Darwins followers--like Darwin himself--agree that humans evolved from ape-like animals. This agreement, however, represents a theoretical consensus. It does not emerge from the evidence--not the meager evidence for human origins, nor (as we have seen) the evidence from four-winged fruit flies, Darwins finches, peppered moths, vertebrate embryos, comparative anatomy, or the fossil record of the animal phyla. On what, then, is this theoretical consensus based?
(c) It seems to me that it is based largely on a philosophical commitment--specifically, a commitment to materialism, the philosophical doctrine that the physical universe is the only reality; God, spirit and mind are illusions. One consequence of this doctrine is the claim that there has been no purpose or direction in the history of life. According to the NCSE, the notion that textbooks use drawings of supposed human ancestors to justify this claim is ludicrous. Yet Guttmans, Biology (1999) tells students that living things have developed just by chance, by a roll of the cosmic dice, through the action of random evolutionary forces. Miller and Levines Biology (5th Edition, 2000) asserts that evolution works without plan or purpose, so evolution is random and undirected. Purves, Sadava, Orians and Hellers Life: The Science of Biology (6th Edition, 2001) states that evolution is not directed toward a final goal or state. And all three of these textbooks include fanciful drawings of ape-like humans that help to convince students we are no exception to the rule of purposelessness.
(d) Some biology textbooks use other kinds of illustrations as well as interviews with famous Darwinists to persuade students that human beings are merely accidental by-products of purposeless natural processes. Raven and Johnsons Biology (5th Edition, 1999) depicts a speculative reconstruction of the famous Lucy fossil after treating students to an interview with Harvard professor Stephen Jay Gould, who tells them: Humans represent just one tiny, largely fortuitous, and late-arising twig on the enormously arborescent bush of life. Campbell, Reece and Mitchells Biology (5th Edition, 1999) uses drawings of reconstructed fossil skulls rather than whole animals, and features an interview with Oxford professor Richard Dawkins, who declares: Natural selection is a bewilderingly simple idea. And yet what it explains is the whole of life, the diversity of life, the complexity of life, the apparent design of life--including human beings, who are fundamentally not exceptional because we came from the same evolutionary source as every other species. Our existence was not planned, however, because natural selection is totally blind to the future--the blind watchmaker. For further reading, students are referred to Dawkinss book of that name, in which he writes: Darwin made it possible to be an intellectually fulfilled atheist. (22)
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My Question: EVOLUTION A FACT? Why are we told that Darwins theory of evolution is a scientific fact--even though many of its claims are based on misrepresentations of the facts?
NCSEs Answer: What does Wells mean by Darwins theory of evolution? In the last century, some of what Darwin originally proposed has been augmented by more modern scientific understanding of inheritance (genetics), development, and other processes that affect evolution. What remains unchanged is that similarities and differences among living things on Earth over time and space display a pattern that is best explained by evolutionary theory. Wellss 10 Questions fails to demonstrate a pattern of evolutionary biologists misrepresenting the facts.
My Response in Outline:
(a) Darwin called his theory descent with modification. Defenders of the theory often refer to descent from a common ancestor as a fact, and reserve the term theory for ideas about the mechanisms of modification. This distinction is found in most biology textbooks that deal with evolution.
(b) Yet some of the best evidence for the fact of evolution comes from the fossil record, homology, and embryology--and as we have seen, there are serious problems with all three. The claim that evolution is a fact, like the claim that humans evolved from ape-like ancestors, owes more to materialistic philosophy than to empirical science.
(c) If anything demonstrates a pattern of evolutionary biologists misrepresenting the facts, it is the NCSEs evasive and false answers to my Ten Questions.
My Response in Detail:
(a) Darwin called his theory descent with modification. He wrote in 1859: I view all beings not as special creations, but as the lineal descendants of some few beings which lived in the remote past, and he considered natural selection the main but not exclusive means of modification. Thus from the very beginning the theory of biological evolution has had two elements: the pattern of descent from a common ancestor, and the processes by which descendants have been modified. As the NCSE points out, ideas about the processes of evolution have been augmented by modern research, but the idea of an underlying pattern of descent from a universal common ancestor has remained unchanged since Darwins time. Defenders of Darwins theory often refer to universal common ancestry as a fact, reserving the term theory for ideas about process. (23)
(b) This distinction is found in most biology textbooks that deal with evolution. For example, Futuymas Evolutionary Biology (3rd Edition, 1998) tells students: Descent with modification from common ancestors is a scientific fact, that is, a hypothesis so well supported by evidence that we take it to be true. The theory of evolution, on the other hand, is a complex body of statements, well supported but still incomplete, about the causes of evolution. Guttmans Biology (1999) makes the same distinction: The concept of evolution actually has two faces--one fact, one theory. If we ask how all the organisms on Earth have reached their present forms, the answer is that they have evolved. This answer is based on such an enormous, coherent body of evidence that we must take it as a fact. By contrast, the other face of evolution, the complex body of ideas about how evolution occurs, is a theory. According to Audesirk, Audesirk and Byerss Life On Earth (2nd Edition, 2000), evolution means that modern organisms descended, with modification, from pre-existing life-forms. The book then asserts: Virtually all biologists consider evolution to be a fact. Although debates still rage over the mechanisms of evolutionary change, exceedingly few biologists dispute that evolution occurs. Why? Because an overwhelming body of evidence permits no other conclusion. Yet the textbooks claim that some of the best evidence for the fact of evolution comes from the fossil record, homology, and embryology--and as we have seen, there are serious problems with all three. Why, then, are we still told that evolution is a fact? (24)
(c) It seems to me that this claim, like the claim that humans evolved from ape-like ancestors, owes more to materialistic philosophy than to empirical science. Audesirk, Audesirk and Byerss Life On Earth (2nd Edition, 2000) tells students: Over the course of human history, two approaches have been taken to the study of life and other natural phenomena. The first assumes that some events happen through the intervention of supernatural forces
. In contrast, science adheres to the principle of natural causality: All events can be traced to natural causes. The claim that all events can be traced to natural causes is not a methodological statement limiting science to the study of natural phenomena, but a sweeping metaphysical statement about the whole of reality: It is an affirmation of materialism. Guttmans Biology (1999), as we saw above, promotes materialism in its statements that evolution is purposeless and undirected. And Futuymas Evolutionary Biology (3rd Edition, 1998) tells upper division and graduate students: By coupling undirected, purposeless variation to the blind, uncaring process of natural selection, Darwin made theological or spiritual explanations of the life processes superfluous. Futuyma concludes that it was Darwins theory of evolution, together with Marxs view of history and Freuds view of human nature that provided a crucial plank to the platform of mechanism and materialism that has since been the stage of most Western thought. (25)
(d) According to the NCSE, my Ten Questions fail to demonstrate a pattern of evolutionary biologists misrepresenting the facts. Yet the NCSEs evasive and false answers to my questions clearly demonstrate such a pattern. The NCSEs evasions include: using major groups to denote vertebrate classes rather than animal phyla, thus side-stepping the challenge to Darwins theory posed by the Cambrian explosion; listing embryos from only one vertebrate class to give the illusion that similarities among the embryos of ALL classes provide evidence for common ancestry; and comparing staged photos of peppered moths that misrepresent the truth to historical re-enactments of events that actually happened. Furthermore, the NCSE makes numerous false claims about the scientific evidence, such as the following: the Miller-Urey experiment succeeded in showing how organic molecules might have been produced on the early Earth (it didnt); when the experiment is repeated using a more realistic mixture of gasses, it still produces most of the same building blocks (it doesnt); fish do not appear in the Cambrian explosion (they do); the early stages of vertebrate embryos are generally more similar than later stages (theyre not); and anatomical mutations in fruit flies produce novel structures that provide raw materials for evolution (they dont). The NCSE also makes statements about biology textbooks that are demonstrably false, for example: textbooks do not rely on faked embryo drawings; very few textbooks feature the four-winged fruit fly; and textbooks do not use drawings of ape-like humans in the context of promoting materialistic philosophy. Simple examination shows that many textbooks do these very things. To see a pattern of evolutionary biologists misrepresenting the facts, one needs only to read the NCSEs answers to my Ten Questions To Ask Your Biology Teacher About Evolution.
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Conclusion:
The NCSE introduces its answers to my Ten Questions by calling many of my claims incorrect or misleading, and by maintaining that they are intended only to create unwarranted doubts in students minds about the validity of evolution as good science. The evasions and falsehoods listed above, however, make it clear that it is the NCSEs answers that are incorrect or misleading. If students have doubts about the scientific validity of evolution, their doubts are amply warranted not only by the systematic pattern of misrepresentations in biology textbooks, but also by the false and evasive statements the NCSE makes in defense of those misrepresentations.
Good science is the search for truth, and it searches for truth by comparing theories with the evidence. A good science education should present the evidence truthfully--especially the evidence for and against a theory as influential as Darwins. Yet biology textbooks invariably present this evidence with a pro-Darwin spin, indoctrinating students rather than educating them. It seems that the National Center for Science Education, despite its title, wants students to inherit the spin.
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REFERENCES
Note: More detailed information on all ten questions is available in my book, Icons of Evolution (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2000; paperback edition 2002).
(1) The relevant page numbers in the cited textbooks are: Campbell, Reece and Mitchells Biology (5th Edition, 1999), p. 494; Maders Biology (6th Edition, 1998), p. 325; Starr and Taggarts Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life (8th Edition, 1998), p. 335; Schraer and Stoltzes Biology: The Study of Life (7th Edition, 1999), pp. 590-591; Guttmans Biology (1999), p. 603; Audesirk, Audesirk and Byerss Life On Earth (2nd Edition, 2000), p. 271; Purves, Sadava, Orians and Hellers Life: The Science of Biology (6th Edition, 2001), p. 451; Alberts, Bray, Lewis, Raff, Roberts and Watsons Molecular Biology of the Cell (3rd Edition, 1994), p. 4; Futuymas Evolutionary Biology (3rd Edition, 1998), p. 167; Freeman and Herrons Evolutionary Analysis (2nd Edition, 2001), p. 481.
(2) For the consensus among geochemists that the Miller-Urey experiment did not realistically simulate the Earths early atmosphere, see Heinrich D. Holland, Model for the Evolution of the Earths Atmosphere, pp. 447-477 in A. E. J. Engel, Harold L. James and B. F. Leonard (editors), Petrologic Studies: A Volume in Honor of A. F. Buddington (Geological Society of America, 1962), pp. 448-449; Philip H. Abelson, Chemical Events on the Primitive Earth, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 55 (1966), 1365-1372; Marcel Florkin, Ideas and Experiments in the Field of Prebiological Chemical Evolution, Comprehensive Biochemistry 29B (1975), 231-260, pp. 241-242; and Sidney W. Fox and Klaus Dose, Molecular Evolution and the Origin of Life, Revised Edition (New York: Marcel Dekker, 1977), pp. 43, 74-76. Concerning the failure of the Miller-Urey experiment when a realistic atmosphere is used, see Gordon Schlesinger and Stanley L. Miller, Prebiotic Synthesis in Atmospheres Containing CH4, CO, and CO2: I. Amino Acids, Journal of Molecular Evolution 19 (1983), 376-382; and John Horgan, In the Beginning..., Scientific American (February 1991), 116-126, p. 121.
(3) Nicholas Wade, Lifes Origins Get Murkier and Messier, The New York Times (Tuesday, June 13, 2000), pp. D1-D2.
(4) Philippe Janvier, Catching the first fish, Nature 402 (November 4, 1999), pp. 21-22; D-G. Shu, H-L. Luo, S. Conway Morris, X-L. Zhang, S-X. Hu, L. Chen, J. Han, M. Zhu, Y. Li and L-Z. Chen, Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China, Nature 402 (1999), 42-46; Jun-Yuan Chen, Di-Ying Huang and Chia-Wei Li, An early Cambrian craniate-like chordate, Nature 402 (1999), 518-522; Fred Heeren, A Little Fish Challenges a Big Giant, The Boston Globe (May 30, 2000), E1.
(5) James W. Valentine, Stanley M. Awramik, Philip W. Signor and Peter M. Sadler, The Biological Explosion at the Precambrian-Cambrian Boundary, Evolutionary Biology 25 (1991), 279-356; Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species (1st Edition, 1859), Chap. IX.
(6) The relevant page numbers in the cited textbooks are: Starr and Taggarts Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life (8th Edition, 1998), pp. 318-319; Johnsons Biology: Visualizing Life (1998), p. 178; Campbell, Reece and Mitchells Biology (5th Edition, 1999), p. 424; Raven and Johnsons Biology (5th Edition, 1999), pp. 412, 416; Audesirk, Audesirk and Byerss Life On Earth (2nd Edition, 2000), p. 236.
(7) Michael Lynch, The Age and Relationships of the Major Animal Phyla, Evolution 53 (1999), 319-325, p. 323.
(8) William W. Ballard, Problems of gastrulation: real and verbal, BioScience 26 (1976), 36-39, p. 38; Richard P. Elinson, Change in developmental patterns: embryos of amphibians with large eggs, pp. 1-21 in R. A. Raff and E. C. Raff (editors), Development as an Evolutionary Process, vol. 8 (New York: Alan R. Liss, 1987), p. 3; Rudolf A. Raff, The Shape of Life: Genes, Development, and the Evolution of Animal Form (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996), p. 208; and M. K. Richardson, J. Hanken, M. L. Gooneratne, C. Pieau, A. Raynaud, L. Selwood, and G. M. Wright, There is no highly conserved embryonic stage in the vertebrates: implications for current theories of evolution and development, Anatomy and Embryology 196 (1997), 91-106.
(9) E. M. del Pino and R. P. Elinson, A novel developmental pattern for frogs: Gastrulation produces an embryonic disk, Nature 306 (1983), 589-591; James Hanken et al., Cranial Ontogeny in the Direct-Developing Frog, Eleutherodactylus coqui (Anura: Leptodactylidae), Analyzed Using Whole-Mount Immunohistochemistry, Journal of Morphology 211 (1992), 95-118.
(10) The relevant page numbers in the cited textbooks are: Starr and Taggarts Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life (8th Edition, 1998), p. 317; Guttmans Biology (1999), p. 718; Biggs, Kapicka and Lundgrens Biology: The Dynamics of Life (1998), p. 433; Schraer and Stoltzes Biology: The Study of Life (7th Edition, 1999), p. 583; Miller and Levines Biology (5th Edition, 2000), p. 283; Futuymas Evolutionary Biology (3rd Edition, 1998), p. 653; Alberts, Bray, Lewis, Raff, Roberts and Watsons Molecular Biology of the Cell (3rd Edition, 1994), pp. 32-33. The Gould quotation is from pp. 44-46 of his essay, Abscheulich! Atrocious! Natural History (March, 2000), pp. 42-49.
(11) The relevant page numbers in the cited textbooks are: Starr and Taggarts Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life (8th Edition, 1998), p. 278; Schraer and Stoltzes Biology: The Study of Life (7th Edition, 1999), p. 761; Maders Biology (6th Edition, 1998), p. 296; Raven and Johnsons Biology (5th Edition, 1999), p. 413.
(12) Henry Gee, In Search of Deep Time (New York: The Free Press, 1999), p. 23.
(13) See Kevin Padian and Luis M. Chiappe, The origin and early evolution of birds, Biological Reviews 73 (1998), 1-42. For a thorough and expert critique of the view advocated by Padian and other cladists, see Alan Feduccia, The Origin and Evolution of Birds (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), pp. 45-91.
(14) Theodore D. Sargent, Craig D. Millar and David M. Lambert, The Classical Explanation of Industrial Melanism: Assessing the Evidence, Evolutionary Biology 30 (1998), 299-322, pp. 318; Jerry A. Coyne, Not black and white, a review of Michael Majeruss Melanism: Evolution in Action, Nature 396 (1998), 35-36. See also Jonathan Wells, Second Thoughts about Peppered Moths, The Scientist (May 24, 1999), 13
(15) The relevant page numbers in the cited textbooks are: Johnsons Biology: Visualizing Life (1998), p. 182; Guttmans Biology (1999), pp. 35-36; Schraer and Stoltzes Biology: The Study of Life (7th Edition, 1999), pp. 618-619; Miller and Levines Biology (5th Edition, 2000), pp. 297-298; Maders Biology (6th Edition, 1998), pp. 11-12, 306.
(16) For details of the Grants research, see Peter R. Grant, Ecology and Evolution of Darwins Finches (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), and Jonathan Weiner, The Beak of the Finch (New York: Vintage Books, 1994). The Miller-Levine quotation is from Biology: The Living Science (Prentice-Hall, 1998), pp. 254-255. The NAS quotation is from Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999), Evidence Supporting Biological Evolution, p, 2, http://books.nap.edu/html/creationism/evidence.html.
(17) Alan H. Linton, The Times Higher Education Supplement (April 20, 2001), p. 29; Phillip E. Johnson, The Church of Darwin, The Wall Street Journal (August 16, 1999), p. A14.
(18) The relevant page numbers in the cited textbooks are: Maders Biology (6th Edition, 1998), pp. 304, 921; Raven and Johnsons Biology (5th Edition, 1999), pp. 394, 1154; Guttmans Biology (1999), pp. 34, 437; Purves, Sadava, Orians and Hellers Life: The Science of Biology (6th Edition, 2001), pp. 439-445; Futuymas Evolutionary Biology (3rd Edition, 1998), pp. 48-49; Freeman and Herrons Evolutionary Analysis (2nd Edition, 2001), pp. 588-590.
(19) E. B. Lewis, A gene complex controlling segmentation in Drosophila, Nature 276 (1978), 565-570; Mark Peifer & Welcome Bender, The anterobithorax and bithorax mutations of the bithorax complex, EMBO Journal 5 (1986), 2293-2303.
(20) On the absence of flight muscles in the second pair of wings, see J. Fernandes, S. E. Celniker, E. B. Lewis & K. VijayRaghavan, Muscle development in the four-winged Drosophila and the role of the Ultrabithorax gene, Current Biology 4 (1994), 957-964; Sudipto Roy, L. S. Shashidhara & K. VijayRaghavan, Muscles in the Drosophila second thoracic segment are patterned independently of autonomous homeotic gene function, Current Biology 7 (1997), 222-227. The Mayr quotation is from Ernst Mayr, Populations, Species and Evolution, an abridgement of his 1963 book, Animal Species and Evolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), pp. 251-253.
(21) F. Clark Howell, Thoughts on the Study and Interpretation of the Human Fossil Record, pp. 1-39 in W. Eric Meikle, F. Clark Howell & Nina G. Jablonski (editors), Contemporary Issues in Human Evolution, Memoir 21 (San Francisco: California Academy of Sciences, 1996), pp. 3, 31; Geoffrey A. Clark, Through a Glass Darkly: Conceptual Issues in Modern Human Origins Research, pp. 60-76 in G. A. Clark & C. M. Willermet (editors), Conceptual Issues in Modern Human Origins Research (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1997), pp. 60-62; Henry Gee, In Search of Deep Time: Beyond the Fossil Record to a New History of Life (New York: The Free Press, 1999), pp. 32, 202.
(22) The relevant page numbers in the cited textbooks are: Guttmans Biology (1999), pp. 36-37, 774-777; Miller and Levines Biology (5th Edition, 2000), pp. 658, 762-764; Purves, Sadava, Orians and Hellers Life: The Science of Biology (6th Edition, 2001), pp. 3, 597-598; Raven and Johnsons Biology (5th Edition, 1999), pp. 15, 448-450; Campbell, Reece and Mitchells Biology (5th Edition, 1999), pp. 412-413, 660. The Dawkins quote is from Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker: Why the evidence of evolution reveals a universe without design (New York: W. W. Norton, 1986), p. 6.
(23) The Darwin quotations are from Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species (1st Edition, 1859), Introduction and Conclusion.
(24) The relevant page numbers in the cited textbooks are: Futuymas Evolutionary Biology (3rd Edition, 1998), p. 15; Guttmans Biology (1999), p. 8; Audesirk, Audesirk and Byerss Life On Earth (2nd Edition, 2000), pp. 8-9, 12, 235.
(25) The relevant page numbers in the cited textbooks are: Audesirk, Audesirk and Byerss Life On Earth (2nd Edition, 2000), pp. 8-9, 12, 235; Guttmans Biology (1999), pp. 36-37; Futuymas Evolutionary Biology (3rd Edition, 1998), p. 5.
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Ok Mofi þú vinnur, það kom bandbrjálaður fjöldamorðingi og hókuspókusaði allt upp
Discovery Institute er mál málanna... muuhhaaa
DoctorE (IP-tala skráð) 25.8.2008 kl. 13:46
DoctorE, þú hlýtur að geta komið þínum málstað á framfæri án rökvillna... Hérna voru það strámannsrökin að sköpun þýði hókus pókus en að nota vitsmuni til að hanna er allt annað en hókus pókus. Það er sú aðferð sem mannkynið hefur notað til að búa til tölvur, síma, sjónvörp og flugvélar svo eitthvað sé nefnt. Hugmyndin að náttúrulegir kraftar sem hafa ekki vitsmuni gátu orsakað vitsmuni, upplýsingar og forritunarmál; það er alvöru hókus pókus og þótt ég hef gaman að slíku þá er það of aulalegt til að trúa því.
Mofi, 25.8.2008 kl. 14:28
Það var engin þróun Mofi. Guð skapaði Guð úr engu og síðan sólir og plánetur úr engu. Þá uppgötvaði hann að búa mætti hvað sem er úr leir og bjó til allt dýra- og mannlíf úr leir. Þess vegna finnst ýmsum dýrum gott að baða sig upp úr leir, enn þann dag í dag.
En, svona án allra bull-kenninga. Upphaf þess sem til er, veit enginn um.
Það er minn sannleikur.
Sigurður Rósant, 25.8.2008 kl. 15:27
Sammála Rósant, menn svara þannig spurningum í trú.
Mofi, 25.8.2008 kl. 15:38
Púff á að drekkja manni í texta hérna?
Bókin hans Wells hefur nú ekki fengið neinar svaka góðar móttökur, nema hjá sköpunarsinnunum auðvitað.
Icons of Evolution wiki
Icons of Evolution FAQ frá Talkorigins
Af hverju gengur svona illa að afsanna þróunarkenninguna? Vísindamenn ELSKA að uppgötva eitthvað nýtt, jafnvel þótt það þýði að þeir hafi haft rangt fyrir sér. Nú iða þeir í skinninu yfir að fá að kveikja loksins á LHC og vona að margar vísindakenningar verði annaðhvort styrktar eða rifnar niður með nýjum uppgötvunum.
Ef það tækist að afsanna þróunarkenninguna á sannfærandi hátt, þá væri höfundur hinnar nýju kenningar settur á stall innan vísindahreyfingarinnar, hann yrði grafinn undir öllum verðlaununum sem væri hrúgað á hann og hann hylltur sem "maðurinn/konan sem sló Darwin við".
Ólíkt því sem sköpunarsinnar halda fram, þá er almenn sátt um þróunarkenninguna innan vísindasamfélagsins, það er aðeins pínkulítill hluti vísindamanna sem viðurkennir hana ekki. Einhversstaðar man ég eftir sögu um 700 undirskriftir, sá fjöldi dugar ekki einu sinni til að fylla upp í starfsmannalista CERN.
Það er allt í lagi að benda á galla og vera með útúrsnúninga hér og þar, en þróunarkenningin hefur staðið af sér allar árásir síðastliðin 150 ár, og aðeins styrkst ef eitthvað er.
Rebekka, 25.8.2008 kl. 15:54
Sorry :) En það er hægt að lesa spurningarnar sem urðu kveikjan að öllu þessu án þess að drekkja sér í svörum og mótrökum.
Þróunarsinnar eiga voðalega erfitt að taka gagnrýni svo það kemur ekki á óvart. Af einhverjum ástæðum þá finnst þeim að gagnrýna þeirra trú vera óvísindalegt en eitthvað finnst mér þeir hafa misskilið hvernig vísindin virka.
Vegna þess að efnishyggju guðleysi er orðið að vísindum fyrir marga. Í þannig hugarheimi þá skiptir ekki máli hvort að þróunarkenningin er full af göllum, hinn valmöguleikinn er útilokaður vegna efnishyggju guðleysi.
Þess vegna er ég t.d. hérna að benda á efnislega galla á þróunarkenningunni með nokkrum vel völdum spurningum í staðinn fyrir að nota rökvillur eins og að vísa í yfirvald og að svo margir trúa einhverju öðru rökin. Ef allar rökræður ættu að vera útkljáðar með því hve margir eru á ákveðni skoðun þá gætum við öll pakkað saman og hætt þessu.
Mofi, 25.8.2008 kl. 16:01
Vegna þess að efnishyggju guðleysi er orðið að vísindum fyrir marga. Í þannig hugarheimi þá skiptir ekki máli hvort að þróunarkenningin er full af göllum, hinn valmöguleikinn er útilokaður vegna efnishyggju guðleysi.
Flottur strákall! og engann veginn svar við spurninguni.
Hver tapar meira á því að hafa rangt fyrir sér?
Vísinda menn : Þeir hafa alltaf rangt fyrir sér, þessvegna eru vísindi ennþá stunduð, ef allt væri núþegar upgötvað og sannað væri ekki mikið meira að tala um.
Þú og þínir. Ef biblian hefur rangt fyrir sér, þá stendur trúinn á valtari fótum en hún gerir nú. Auðvitað er þetta ekkert vandamál fyrir algeran meirihluta þeirra sem trúa á biblíuna. Það eru bara bókstafstrúamenn sem eru í klemmu.
Mér sýnist vísindamenn ekki hafa mikið að tapa á þessu.
Davíð Þóroddur Ólafsson, 25.8.2008 kl. 16:57
Þótt að menn komast að einhverju sem er satt þá þýðir það ekki að það er búið að uppgvöta allt og öll vísindi leggjast niður.
Vísindamenn trúa líka á sköpun. Vísindamenn eru ekki ákveðin hópur fólks, allir með sömu skoðunina á lífið og tilverunnar og tilvist Guðs. Þér kannski finnst að Darwinistar hafa lítið að tapa á þessu en merkilegt hve grimmilega þeir verja sína trú eins og PZ Myers og Dawkins sýna fram á.
Mofi, 25.8.2008 kl. 17:04
Nei, afhverju? Þegar kemur að uppruna orku og efna þá sannarlega þarf eitthvað sem er ofar náttúrulögmálum, önnur sönnun fyrir tilvist Guðs.
Það kann að virka fyrir fáfróða að sjá bíl koma út úr verksmiðju sem hókus pókus en þeir sem vita betur, vita að um merkilega hönnun er að ræða.
Heilan alheim af gögnum.
Nei, hugmyndafræði. Sumir kaupa hana og aðrir ekki. Nóg til að heiðarlegum efnishyggju darwinistum sem hafa upplýst fyrir okkur hvernig þetta virkar. Fór aðeins út í það hérna:Sönnun fyrir tilvist Guðs - uppruni lífs
Hvernig væri eiginlega að reyna að vera heiðarlegur og málefnalegur?
Mofi, 25.8.2008 kl. 18:06
Hókus pókus, er aðeins hókus pókus fyrir þeim sem ekki skilja brelluna. Töframaðurinn sjálfur veit nákvæmlega hvað hann er að gera.
Viðar Freyr Guðmundsson, 25.8.2008 kl. 19:25
Sorry Mofi en maður dettur bara úr gír með að svara einhverju þar sem gefið er í skyn að galdramenn hafi komið að málum.
Ef ég segi þér að nærbuxurnar mínar hafi skapað alheiminn þá veistu circa hvernig mér líður.
DoctorE (IP-tala skráð) 25.8.2008 kl. 20:57
Þetta er hræðilegur misskilningur. Það segir enginn að menn séu komnir af sömu öpum og eru enn núlifandi (s.s. górillur, gibbonar, órangútanar og simpansar), heldur að prímatar eigi sér sameiginlegan, útdauðan forföður.
Þar að auki þróast dýr ekki frá einu í annað á einni kynslóð. Það tekur TÍMA. Að auki hefur þróun enga áætlun, enginn segir "já, þessi api mun verða að manneskju eftir x mörg ár", heldur er hún fremur ófyrirsjáanleg (nema hægt sé að stjórna umhverfinu og áhrifum á lífveruna sem maður vill þróa, eða hreinlega rækta fram eiginleika - eins og með hina margfrægu banana).
Rebekka, 26.8.2008 kl. 07:05
Það er vísindalegt því að einhvern tíman var ekkert og síðan var eitthvað; einhver sem hefur vald til að búa til efni verður að hafa byrjað ferlið. Hókus pókus er bara orð sem fáfróðir nota yfir það sem þeir skilja ekki. Þótt að galdramaður dregur fram kanínu úr hattinum sínum þá þýðir það ekki að hann sannarlega galdraði kanínu úr tómarími hattsins.
Af því að um er að ræða trú og hugmyndafræði; það er það sem gerir dæmið svona erfitt.
Hvernig væri nú að bara hætta að ljúga?
Akkurat :)
Áhugavert...
Þú veist mæta vel að í þessari ímynduðu þróunarsögu þá eiga menn að eiga forfaðir sem var frekar apalegur svo auðvitað spyr maður sig að því hvar þeir eru. Þeir sem byrjuðu á þessari vitleysu eins og Darwin héldu einmitt það sama og héldu því fram að svertingjar og frumbyggjar ástralíu væru þessir mannapar.
Mofi, 26.8.2008 kl. 09:49
Hér er lítið dæmi um forfeður mannsins. Einnig er afar áhugavert að skoða "The Human Genome Project" og "The Chimpanzee genome project".
Mhmm, það gerðist á 19. öld. Núna er 21. öldin og fólk er löngu hætt að halda því fram að svertingjar eða frumbyggjar séu mannapar (fyrir utan einstaka rasista). Eigum við að ræða um hverju kirkjan hefur haldið fram í gegnum aldirnar?Og þú hittir nákvæmlega naglann á höfuðið þegar þú svaraðir Sveini um afhverju það væri svona erfitt að afsanna þróunarkenninguna: Af því að um er að ræða trú og hugmyndafræði. Ósýnileg sönnunargögn (aka. guð) og órökstuddar skoðanir duga ekki langt. Það er enn til FULLT af trúuðum vísindamönnum sem viðurkenna þróunarkenninguna, en heldurðu ekki að þeir myndu hoppa hæð sína í loft upp af gleði ef hægt væri að afsanna hana og sýna fram á að guð skapaði heiminn? Drífið í að koma með almennilega sönnun bara!
Rebekka, 26.8.2008 kl. 10:29
Og hér er útskýrt afhverju það vantar alvöru gögn sem styðja þróun mannsins frá dýrum sjá: The non-transitions in ‘human evolution’—on evolutionists’ terms
Málið er að þeir gerðu það út frá kenningunni sjálfri. Núna er það svona "ekki pólitískur" rétttrúnaður svo ekki vinsælt. Af og til þá koma samt darwinstar út úr skápnum með þessar hugmyndir sínar eins og t.d. hérna: Leiðandi darwinisti segir svart fólk heimskara en hvítt fólk
Málið er flóknara en það. Margir hverjir sem eru á þessari skoðun þora ekki einu sinni að tala opinberlega eða skrifa undir réttu nafni af því þeir eru hræddir við að það skaði frama þeirra. En þetta er allt að mjakast í rétta átt. Við getum lært af mannkynssögunni hve erfitt það var fyrir Galileó að breyta skoðunum sinna samtíma manna svo ekki nema rökrétt að það verði erfitt á okkar tímum líka.
Ég var nú að benda á að höfundur kenningarinnar var á þessari skoðun... Síðan bendi ég auðvitað á það að hvaða forfaðir sem menn eiga að hafa, þá væru þeir apalegri; eitthvað sem sést á öllum tilraunum darwinista að endurskapa þá út frá einhverjum beinbrotum. Svo auðvitað er spurning Halldóru réttmæt, afhverju eru þeir allir horfnir.
Sagðir þú ekki að þú trúir á Guð? En ert samt algjörlega á móti því að einhver trúir vegna þess að hann sjái handverk Guðs í lífinu? Hvað er eiginlega málið?
Mofi, 26.8.2008 kl. 11:17
Mofi þú fellur í gryfju vanþekkingar og flækir huga þinn í neti óskhyggju.
You are stuck in a hole.
DoctorE (IP-tala skráð) 26.8.2008 kl. 11:57
Kannski er Sigmar bara einn af þessum trúuðu sem fara fram á heimildir en ekki bara óskhyggu.
Arnar, 26.8.2008 kl. 12:07
Einmitt, og vegna þess að ekki er hægt að sýna fullkomlega fram á að þessar beinagrindur séu af forfeðrum okkar, þá HLJÓTA Adam og Eva að vera sannir forfeður okkar? Right... AiG reyna að debunka vel rannsakaðar kenningar með því að snúa út úr
, og koma í staðinn með þjóðsögu sem sönnunargagn, frábær vísindi.
Ég trúi enn ekki að ég hafi lesið þetta á síðunni sem þú vísaðir til: "Adam and Eve, and not the australopiths/habilines, are our actual ancestors."
Þetta er nákvæmlega þess vegna sem vísindi og trú virðast ekki getað talað saman!
Rebekka, 26.8.2008 kl. 12:46
Nei, einmitt ekki. Trúir án þess að hafa að hans eigin mati eitthvað til að styðja þá trú. Mér finnst það bara heimskulegt.
Vegna þess að það eru ekki góð gögn til að styðja þróun manna frá einhverjum dýrum að þá er rökrétt að efast um þá fullyrðingu.
Um leið og trúaðir darwinistar verða heiðarlegir um að þeir trúa rétt eins og þeir sem trúa á sköpun þá er smá von að hægt verði að tala saman.
Mofi, 26.8.2008 kl. 13:38
Ekkert mál en hefur Guð gert eitthvað í þessum alheimi okkar?
Hvernig getur það verið órökrétt að þínu mati að það þurfi vitsmuni til að búa til upplýsingar og forritunarmál? Að það þurfi verkfræðigetu til að búa til flóknar vélar?
Ég get skilið að einhver trúir að það eru til aðrar útskýringar en mér finnst það vægast sagt undarlegt að segja að mín afstaða er órökrétt.
Mofi, 26.8.2008 kl. 14:32
Þverhausinn hann Mofi enn á ferð og nú eins og áður drekkir hann fólki í endalausum tilvitnunum þannig að ekki nema örfáir nenna að þræla sér í gegnum þessa vitleysu alla. Hann gleymir alltaf einu atriði að hann er að berjast með gervivísindum gegn alvöru vísindum. Aumingja kallinn. Þið getið séð skýringu á svona atferli á YouTube sem er ótrúlega góð summering hvað Mofi er að gera þ.e. hann fattar ekki að vísindi byggjast á vísindalegri aðferðarfræði en ekki gervivísindalegri aðferð það sem endapunkturinn er þekktur áður en rannsókn hefst. Til hvers að vera að rannsaka hlut ef niðurstaðan er þegar niðurnjörvuð??? Eitt dæmi eru aldur risaeðlana eða aldur jarðar til hvers eru gervivísindamennirnir að rannskaka það þegar það stendur(þeir túlka það reyndar) í Biblíunni hver aldurinn sé. Ég sé enga ástæðu til að gera það þegar það sem sanna eða rannsaka á er þegar þekkt. Ef ég ætti að reyna að finna út með vísindalegri aðferð hversu gömul bók er sem gefin var út 1962 þá segi ég til hvers er ég að hafa fyrir því??? Hér kemur svo þetta mjög svo góða myndband á YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xO7IT81h200&eurl=http://doctore.blog.is/blog/doctore/
Kveðja Willow
Þorvaldur Þórsson (IP-tala skráð) 26.8.2008 kl. 15:07
Hann eyddi því sjálfur og hafði sínar ástæður fyrir því. Guð getur skapað nýja jörð og hefur lofað því. Þú aftur á móti svaraðir ekki spurningunni.
Long time no see :)
Nei, ég er sannarlega að berjast á móti gerfivísindum sem vilja meina að náttúrulegir kraftar sem hafa ekki vitsmuni geta orsakað vitsmuni. Það er aðeins eitt af svo mörgu óvísindlegum hugmyndum sem darwinistar hafa; betur útskýrt hérna: Guðleysis efnishyggja er óvinur vísinda og skynsemi
Svona eins og þegar menn fóru að leita að "missing links" vegna þess að þeir trúðu að Darwin hafði rétt fyrir sér?
Niðurstaðan er ekkert niðurnjörfuð. Hún er það í tilfelli darwinista sem útiloka hönnun. Svo sama hvað þeir rannsaka, hönnun er alltaf útilokuð. Þeir sem aðhyllast sköpun aftur á móti meta viðkomandi viðfangsefni, hvort er líklegra að hafa orsakað viðkomandi hlut, náttúrulegir ferlar eða vitsmunir. Alvöru vísindi, alvöru rannsóknir þar sem guðleysis hugmyndafræði ræður ekki ferðinni.
Mofi, 26.8.2008 kl. 15:17
Eins og ég hef alltaf vitað. Mofi er ennþá að tyggja sömu hlutina aftur og aftur og reynir ekki einu sinni að lesa það sem maður skrifar.(kannski les hann en hann meðtekur ekki). Það eru til heilræði þar sem segir.
Reynið adrei að rífast við reiðan mann. (hann hefur alltaf rétt fyrir sér að eigin sögn)
Þetta sama á við um trúarofstæistmenn, sama hvort þeir eru múslimar,krisnir eða gyðingar. Það er ekki hægt að rökræða við þá þeir hafa alltaf rétt fyrir sér. Það eitt að þessir þrír hópar eru alls ekki sammála um hlutina og segjast allir hafa rétt fyrir sér og bera við Biblíunni eða kóraninum eða hvaða skruddu svo sem þeir trúa á, þá er það mótsögn í sjálfu sér. Hvernig geta margir mismunandi hópar allir haft hinn eina sanna sannleika????? Einhver hlýtur að hafa rangt fyrir sér!!!
Sorry Mofi, fólk því miður hlær af þér sem er sorglegt því mig grunar að þarna leynist sæmilega gáfaður einstaklingur bara hrapalega afvegaleiddur.
Kveðja Willow
þorvaldur Þórsson (IP-tala skráð) 26.8.2008 kl. 15:34
Engin mótrök Willow; þú ert ekki í neinu formi sé ég :)
Mofi, 26.8.2008 kl. 15:36
Ekki sé ég hvernig það geta verið rök að vitna í aðrar vefsíður eða biblíuna endalaust. Hvernig form ertu að tala um??? Rökræðuform eða??? Ég hef sem betur fer verið að sinna líkamlegu hliðinni minni undanfarið ár og er í betra formi heldur en ég hef verið síðustu 20 árin. Ekki mundi ég harma það þó ég sé kominn úr formi í að rökræða við trúarofstækismenn enda tel ég þig vera allt of langt kominn út í myrkur trúarofstækis og bókstafstrúar til að hægt sé að láta þig sjá ljósið í þessum málum.
Kveðja Willow
þorvaldur (IP-tala skráð) 26.8.2008 kl. 15:48
Skát og mát Willow... vonandi er líkamlega formið betra en rökræðu formið. Eina sem bættist við var meira skítkast... afspyrnu lélegt form verð ég að segja.
Mofi, 26.8.2008 kl. 15:57
Bíddu nú við Sigmar, þú trúir á Guð sem hefur engin afskipti af þessum alheimi; hvorki orsakaði hann né hefur komið nálægt honum á nokkurn hátt?
Jú, því þetta er vandamálið við uppruna lífs og þetta er eina rökrétta leiðin til að leysa slíkt vandamál. Guð er fyrir utan alheiminn eins og við erum fyrir utan tölvurnar okkar. Það þýðir ekki að við getum ekki haft áhrif á tölvuna eða teygt okkur inn í kassann.
Mofi, 26.8.2008 kl. 17:47
Mofi: "Þróunarsinnar eiga voðalega erfitt að taka gagnrýni svo það kemur ekki á óvart. Af einhverjum ástæðum þá finnst þeim að gagnrýna þeirra trú vera óvísindalegt en eitthvað finnst mér þeir hafa misskilið hvernig vísindin virka."
Berum þetta saman við gagnrýni á sköpunarsöguna og fleira í Biblíunni Er innihald Biblíunnar vísindi? Er vísað í heimildir þar? Eru einhverjar rannsóknir að baki þar sem talað er um? Eru þar settar fram kenningar, reynt á þær og komist að niðurstöðu í Júdeu og Jerúsalem?
Þú berð saman vísindamenn sem byggja sannfæringu sína á vísindalegum grunni og trúmenn sem trúa blint á sannfæringu sína. Þetta er ekki sambærilegt Mofi. Meirihluti vísindamanna er ekki í afneitun og blindri trú á kenningu Darwin. Þeir kúldrast ekki logandi hræddir á rannsóknarstofum sínum í stöðugum ótta um að flett verði ofan af þeim. Það er ekkert stórvísindalegt samsæri í gangi. Þetta er einfaldur og mjög gagnsær hræðsluáróður runninn undan rifjum bókstafstrúarfólks.
Þess fyrir utan eru þetta deilur um keisarans skegg. Vísindamenn vita í raun sáralítið um alheiminn og heittrúaðir ríghalda í "outdated" gögn sem virka barnalegri með hverri öldinni sem líður.
Mofi: "Hókus pókus er bara orð sem fáfróðir nota yfir það sem þeir skilja ekki. Þótt að galdramaður dregur fram kanínu úr hattinum sínum þá þýðir það ekki að hann sannarlega galdraði kanínu úr tómarími hattsins."
Er það ekki nákvæmlega það sem þú og answersingenesis-félagar þínir eru að gera? Segðu mér Mofi, hver er hugmyndafræðilega munurinn á eftirfarandifullyrðingum:
Hatturinn var tómur, Hann dró kanínu uppúr hattinum. Við höfum ekki allar upplýsingar. Þetta á sér ekki eðlilegar skýringar, töframaðurinn er göldróttur!
Það eru ófundnir steingervinga inní þróunarsögu mannsins. Við höfum ekki allar upplýsingar. Þetta getur ekki átt sér eðlilegar skýringar. Guð hefur skapað manninn.
Er einhver munur þarna á?
Páll Geir Bjarnason, 27.8.2008 kl. 00:06
Það væri einfaldlega leiðinlegt. Meiri fjölbreytileiki er skemmtilegri enda margir fletir á þessu máli.
Ég var að reyna að komast að því hvað þessi guð þinn hefur gert. Hefur hann eitthvað með að gera með eitthvað í þessum alheimi? Ef svo er, er einhver leið til að greina hans verk frá öðrum?
Punkturinn er að sá sem bjó til kassan og er fyrir utan kassan getur að sjálfssögðu teygt sig inn í kassann ef hann vill það.
Mofi, 27.8.2008 kl. 10:16
Ekkert að því að gagnrýna sköpunarsöguna. Innihald Biblíunnar er vitnisburður um hvað gerðist fortíðinni alveg eins og hverja aðra heimild sem kemur með fullyrðingu um fortíðina. Maður getur síðan athugað hvernig staðreyndirnar sem við höfum í dag, passa við þá sögu. Hvort að staðreyndirnar styðji söguna eða ekki. Mín niðurstaða er að staðreyndirnar passa betur við þá sögu en þá sögu sem Darwin skáldði upp fyrir 150 árum síðan.
Nei, við erum með hóp af vísindamönnum, innan þessa hóps þá eru menn sem aðhyllast skáldsögu Darwins, aðra sem aðhyllast vitnisburð Biblíunnar, enn aðra sem blanda þessu öllu saman og enn fleiri útgáfur af öllu þessu. Skilgreiningin á vísindamanni er ekki "sá sem trúir á þróunarkenninguna", sjá: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/scientist
Nei, valmöguleikinn fyrir mig er að útskýra uppruna upplýsinga, flókinna véla með vitsmunum sem við vitum hvernig virka ( well, flestir hafa smá hugmynd um það ) eða hvort það þarf ekki vitsmuni.
Við vitum hvernig við getum notað heilann á okkur til að búa til bíla, tölvur og fleira svo hér er ekki verið að vísa í galdra heldur í afl sem við öll þekkjum.
Einhvern tíman heyrt um Mikla hvell? Ég viðurkenni vel að hérna eru menn að álykta út frá mjög takmarkaðri þekkingu en þetta er þekkingin eins og hún er í dag að ég best veit.
In your dreams... þetta er alveg einstaklega barnaleg skoðun. Við höfum alveg ágætt dæmi um hvernig þetta virkar frá sögunni. Þegar menn fóru frá þeirri skoðun að alheimurinn væri eilífur í að alheimurinn hafði byrjun. Þar voru menn mjög á móti þeirri hugmynd og börðust eins lengi á móti henni og þeir gátu, sjá: Sönnun fyrir tilvist Guðs: alheimurinn hafði upphaf
Góður punktur. Ég hugsaði ekki mikið út í þetta, valdi bara fáránlegt dæmi sem mér datt í hug.
Ertu að segja mér að "dýrið" sem við þróuðumst út frá var ekki apaleg? Þannig að allar þessar tilraunir að skálda upp þróunarsögu mannsins þar sem umrædd lífvera er mjög apaleg er bara hvað?
Mofi, 27.8.2008 kl. 10:32
Það snýst ekki allt um gagnrýni á þróun. Uppruni lífs snýr að tilvist Guðs, hvort að rökréttara er að útskýra flóknar vélar og upplýsingar með vitsmunum eða náttúrulegum kröftum.
Fyrir mig væri það vitsmunalegt sjálfsmorð; hreinlega það heimskasta sem ég get ímyndað mér. Gefðu mér þá heiðarlegan guðleysingja eins og Dawkins. Trú er síðan innbyggð í vísindi því að menn eru aldrei með endanlegan sannleika, aðeins hvað er líklegast og taka því í trú.
Þannig sé ég það og það passar við vitnisburð Biblíunnar. Þetta snýst síðan ekki um hvað gerist fyrir utan okkar heim heldur það sem gerist í okkar heimi. Sá sem er fyrir utan okkar heim getur samt alveg teygt sig inn í okkar heim og við getum séð afleiðingar þess í okkar heimi.
Mofi, 27.8.2008 kl. 10:50
Ég geri ekkert ráð fyrir að vera alvitur, ég aðeins trúi því sem ég tel vera í mestu samræmi við það sem ég veit. Gæti ekki trúað í andstöðu við það sem ég veit.
Ég tel að alheimurinn, upphaf lífs, öll náttúruran og mannkynið sjálft er sönnun þess að Guð hafi teygt sig inn í okkar alheim. Þyrfti ekki Biblíuna til að segja mér það; að Guð er til er augljóst út frá sköpunarverkinu.
Það er ég sem geri það á meðan darwinistar neita að viðurkenna að þeir trúi einhverju.
Nei, mikil þörf á því.
Mofi, 27.8.2008 kl. 13:14
þú ert ekkert að svara mér. Bara fjasa eitthvað marklaust út í loftið...
Páll Geir Bjarnason, 27.8.2008 kl. 21:32
Sókrates vissi líka það eitt að hann vissi ekki neitt. Viðhorf sem fleiri mættu tileinka sér.
Páll Geir Bjarnason, 27.8.2008 kl. 23:02
Here you go
Jón Ragnarsson, 28.8.2008 kl. 00:29
Flest allt í svona sirka 95% til 99% :)
Þetta er algjört bull. Það eru til nógu mikið af þúsundum manna sem voru kristnir en skiptu um skoðun.
Ég er marg búinn að sýna fram á að þetta er ekki svona einfalt. Þeir eru menn eins og við og þeir vilja ekki hafa rangt fyrir sér og þeir vilja sérstaklega ekki þurfa að viðurkenna að þeirra kenning og þeirra vinna síðustu áratugina var tóm steypa.
Þótt að þið séuð þrjóskir þá er samt möguleiki að einhver sem er ekki þrjóskur muni lesa og skilja.
Nei, raunsæi. Að þeir eru menn eins og ég og þú.
Ég var engan veginn að viðurkenna það, ég bjó til fáránlegt dæmi án þess að hugsa út í það og það voru misstök.
Mofi, 28.8.2008 kl. 10:08
Mofi, þú ert ekkert minna þrjóskur en við. Common!
Páll Geir Bjarnason, 28.8.2008 kl. 15:59
Ég er örugglega þrjóskari :)
Það varst þú sem bentir á það
Ég bullaði eitthvað dæmi upp í fjótfærni og þú vilt gera eitthvað mikið mál úr því... endilega reyndu að vera málefnalegur.
Þróunarkenningin segir ekki að við erum apar... hún segir ekki einu sinni að við erum komin af öpum. Ekki segja mér að ég er að tala við einhvern sem er ekki enn búinn að taka samræmdu prófin?
Mofi, 28.8.2008 kl. 16:32
Þannig að þegar darwinistar segja "við erum ekki komin af öpum heldur við eigum sameiginlegan forfaðir"... hvað þýðir það? Sérstaklega þegar þú segir að þessi sameiginlegi forfaðir var api?
Hljómar eins og þú ert að segja að við erum komin af öpum en ekki að menn og apar eiga sameiginlegan forfaðir.
Ef þú vilt vera api þá þú um það en þú vonandi fyrirgefur þó ég hafi ekki áhuga á því. Ef þú sérð ekki muninn á mönnum og dýrum eins og öpum þá vorkenni ég þér og get þá alveg afskrifað þig sem einhvern sem er þess virði að rökræða við.
Mofi, 28.8.2008 kl. 17:38
Mig angar að setja á svið ímyndaðar aðstæður.
Segjum sem svo að til sé vísinda"maður" sem aldrei hefur séð mann eða sjimpansa. Kallið hann geimveru eða hvað sem þið viljið, það skiptir ekki máli.
Á borð fyrir framan hann er skellt tveimur líkum, annars vegar:
Þessi maður
...og hins vegar:
Þessi sjimpansi
Eftir nákmæma skoðun, krufningu of samanburð á líffærum og ytri útlitseinkennum, hvaða niðurstöðu ætli hann komist að Mofi? Telur þú möguleika á að þessi ímyndaða vísindavera áætli eitthvað um mjög náinn skyldleika?
Heiðarlegt svar kæri Mofi...
Maður - Górilla - Sjimpansi - Órangúta - Gibbon
Enginn líkindi og bersýnilega alls óskyldar verur, ekki satt?
Páll Geir Bjarnason, 28.8.2008 kl. 20:40
Mofi, 29.8.2008 kl. 15:47
Mér finnst vatnsglas og vatnskanna reyndar ekkert lík.
Páll Geir Bjarnason, 30.8.2008 kl. 01:13
Ef glasið og kannan eru úr sama efninu og innihalda sama vökvann er bersýnilega um náskylda hluti að ræða. Að minnsta kosti eiga þau sameiginlegan uppruna.
Ég sagði hvergi hér að ofan að sjimpansi og maður væri sami hluturinn. Bara að það er greinilegur skyldleiki. Alveg eins og skyldleikinn í þínu dæmi halldóra. Tvö ílát úr sama efni með sama innvolsið. Náskylt en samt ekki alveg sami hluturinn.
Páll Geir Bjarnason, 30.8.2008 kl. 01:41
Aðvörun: Setningin hér að ofan inniheldur vott af kaldhæðni.
Hér er eitt lítið dæmi sem styrkir kenninguna um að menn og aðrir prímatar séu skyldir: Genamengi manna og apa
Rebekka, 30.8.2008 kl. 09:26
Efmér þætti ekki svona gott að berja höfðinu við vegg myndi ég ekki standa í þessu
Páll Geir Bjarnason, 30.8.2008 kl. 10:50
Bæta við athugasemd [Innskráning]
Ekki er lengur hægt að skrifa athugasemdir við færsluna, þar sem tímamörk á athugasemdir eru liðin.